Islam: History & Art
Adaptation and Renewal
After the prophet Muhammad’s death in 632, Islam expanded rapidly north into Syria, Egypt and North Africa, and east into Iraq and Iran.
Through contact with dynamic regional cultures the Umayyads, and later the Abbasids, made their own separate contribution to the rich mosaic of traditions, which came to form what we now know as Islamic art.
By the 7th century Syria and Iraq had formed substantial urban Arab populations, and new settlements rapidly grew into cities.
The expansion of Islam was furthered with this urban population boost, and in 660–61, the Umayyads established their capital in Damascus, which saw the beginnings of Islamic administration: Arabic replaced Greek, Pehlevi and Syriac in the chancery; standard gold and silver coinage was introduced; weights and measures were reformed; taxation became more efficient; and Byzantine monopolies, such as state looms, were taken over.
The Splendour of Baghdad
In 750 the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads, and founded the capital of Baghdad, but during this period several new dynasties, such as the Seljuks of Anatolia and the Fatimids of Egypt, expanded their control westwards to the Mediterranean. In the east Iranian dynasties made themselves economically, politically and culturally independent.
The Abbasid economy flourished through the cultivation of exotic agricultural crops, while new technologies, such as papermaking and silk weaving, were introduced from China. Trade brought porcelains and stonewares from China, stimulating the creation of mass-production industries, while glass was exported eastwards. Fine metalware was produced in Seljuk Anatolia, while the Fatimids became known for their intricately decorated filigree jewellery, and literature, poetry and learning flourished.
The revival of classical learning in Baghdad also laid the basis of Arabic scientific discoveries, especially in mathematics, astronomy and trigonometry, and the period 950–1150 marks the apogee of Islamic science in the east.
Phoenix Rising The Mongols were nomadic groups from the Eastern Asian steppe whose superiority as warriors lay in their mobility, tribal unity, and skill in horsemanship. Saddles and trappings were a reflection of high rank, and decorated in the traditional styles of the steppe and the diverse cultures with which the Mongols came into contact.
Their capture of Baghdad in 1258, and subsequent move into the Middle East, provided a vital link between Europe and China. The Mongols soon converted to Islam, proving strong patrons of learning and the arts.
The Timurids emerged after the break-up of the Mongol empire in the 14th century. Their founder, Tamerlane, was also a great patron of the arts, establishing schools of painting in artistic centres such as Baghdad, Shiraz, Tabriz and Heart. Miniature painting in particular saw one of its most glorious flowerings during this period.
The Mamluks, originally a private army of slave-troops based in Syria and Egypt, remained the defenders of Islam against the Mongols in the East and Crusaders in the West until their victory at the battle of ‘Ayn Jalut in Palestine, in 1259, which put a stop to the westward advance of the Mongol invasions.
They were avid patrons of the sciences and arts; in particular those associated with Qur’anic calligraphy and illumination, enamelled glass and inlaid metalwork.
The Age of Empires
The Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal states were multi-ethnic empires controlling vast economic and human resources. Ruling from Constantinople, the Ottomans controlled the Arab lands and much of Eastern Europe, at one point as far west as Vienna.
The Safavids originated as a Sufi order in 14th-century Anatolia, and remained in the area that is now present-day Iran. In northern India, the Mughal Empire gradually came to dominate the entire subcontinent, until the arrival of the British in the 18th century.
Royal palaces were the hubs of artistic production, and technical innovations in pottery, textile and manuscript production continued to take precedence, creating a distinctive Islamic style influenced by local traditions and contact with other cultures.
In India, Mughal rulers commissioned copies of Hindu epics such as the Ramayana in the Islamic style, while in Ottoman Turkey from the 1470s, a new type of blue-and-white pottery known as Iznik chinaware was made for the sultan’s table. Silks and carpets were being made at various centres in Turkey, Iran and India, for use in the courts or for export to Europe.
Interaction with Europe
With the emergence of the Qajar dynasty in 1747, after the fall of the Safavids, new artistic styles and genres heavily influenced by European traditions emerged, as seen particularly in the lacquer-painted and enamelled objects. Traditional decorative themes were extended to include Christian subjects, copies after European prints, perspective landscapes, and studies of birds and garden flowers.
In late-19th century Europe the delicacy and brilliance of the arts of Islam were highly appreciated, both for themselves and for the inspiration they offered in the revival of European decorative arts. Particularly striking was a fashion for magnificently enamelled glassware, reproducing famous pieces of Mamluk glass, which had been in European collections, often for hundreds of years.